Semi-supervised Classification of Malware Families Under Extreme Class Imbalance via Hierarchical Non-Negative Matrix Factorization with Automatic Model Selection

Keywords:

malware, malware families, non-negative matrix factorization, semi- supervised, hierarchical, model selection, class imbalance, abstaining prediction, reject-option

Citation:

Maksim E. Eren, Manish Bhattarai, Robert J. Joyce, Edward Raff, Charles Nicholas, and Boian S. Alexandrov. 2023. Semi-Supervised Classification of Malware Families Under Extreme Class Imbalance via Hierarchical Non-Negative Matrix Factorization with Automatic Model Selection. ACM Trans. Priv. Secur. 26, 4, Article 48 (November 2023), 27 pages. https://doi.org/10.1145/3624567

BibTeX:

@article{10.1145/3624567,
author = {Eren, Maksim E. and Bhattarai, Manish and Joyce, Robert J. and Raff, Edward and Nicholas, Charles and Alexandrov, Boian S.},
title = {Semi-Supervised Classification of Malware Families Under Extreme Class Imbalance via Hierarchical Non-Negative Matrix Factorization with Automatic Model Selection},
year = {2023},
issue_date = {November 2023},
publisher = {Association for Computing Machinery},
address = {New York, NY, USA},
volume = {26},
number = {4},
issn = {2471-2566},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1145/3624567},
doi = {10.1145/3624567},
abstract = {Identification of the family to which a malware specimen belongs is essential in understanding the behavior of the malware and developing mitigation strategies. Solutions proposed by prior work, however, are often not practicable due to the lack of realistic evaluation factors. These factors include learning under class imbalance, the ability to identify new malware, and the cost of production-quality labeled data. In practice, deployed models face prominent, rare, and new malware families. At the same time, obtaining a large quantity of up-to-date labeled malware for training a model can be expensive. In this article, we address these problems and propose a novel hierarchical semi-supervised algorithm, which we call the HNMFk Classifier, that can be used in the early stages of the malware family labeling process. Our method is based on non-negative matrix factorization with automatic model selection, that is, with an estimation of the number of clusters. With HNMFk Classifier, we exploit the hierarchical structure of the malware data together with a semi-supervised setup, which enables us to classify malware families under conditions of extreme class imbalance. Our solution can perform abstaining predictions, or rejection option, which yields promising results in the identification of novel malware families and helps with maintaining the performance of the model when a low quantity of labeled data is used. We perform bulk classification of nearly 2,900 both rare and prominent malware families, through static analysis, using nearly 388,000 samples from the EMBER-2018 corpus. In our experiments, we surpass both supervised and semi-supervised baseline models with an F1 score of 0.80.},
journal = {ACM Trans. Priv. Secur.},
month = nov,
articleno = {48},
numpages = {27},
keywords = {reject-option, abstaining prediction, class imbalance, model selection, hierarchical, semi-supervised, non-negative matrix factorization, malware families, Malware}
}